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name: system-design-building-blocks description: "Select infrastructure components by the constraint each removes: load balancers, caches and invalidation, queues and pub/sub, CDN, API gateway, rate limiting, consistent hashing. Use when choosing cache, queue, replica, or edge layers; defer engine tuning to the database category." metadata: triggers: keywords: - load balancer - cache strategy - message queue - cdn - api gateway - consistent hashing - pub/sub - rate limiter - backpressure

System Building Blocks

Priority: P1 (HIGH)

Add a component only to remove a named constraint. Every component adds failure modes and cost.

Selection Table

Constraint observed	Component	Cost accepted
One instance saturates CPU or connections	Horizontal scaling behind a load balancer	Statelessness required; session moves to a store
Read QPS exceeds store ceiling; data tolerates staleness	Read-through cache	Stale reads up to TTL; invalidation complexity
Write spikes exceed sustainable store throughput	Queue plus async worker	Eventual completion; needs idempotent consumers
Slow non-critical work blocks the request path	Background job or event	Extra delivery guarantees to reason about
Static or media bytes dominate egress	CDN	Cache purge lag; origin still needed for misses
Cross-cutting authn, quota, routing repeated per service	API gateway	Central chokepoint; must be HA
One tenant or key can exhaust capacity	Rate limiter or admission control	Rejections need clear client contracts
Cache or shard nodes change count during scaling	Consistent hashing	Rebalancing logic; hot-key skew persists

Caching Rules

• Default to cache-aside for read-heavy paths; use write-through only when read-after-write must be exact.
• Set TTL from tolerable staleness, not from convenience. Every cached key needs a stated TTL and an invalidation trigger.
• Guard the miss path: single-flight or request coalescing prevents a stampede when a hot key expires.
• Never cache what you cannot invalidate. Never cache per-user data under a shared key.

Queue Rules

• Choose delivery semantics explicitly: at-least-once plus idempotent consumers is the safe default.
• Partition by the entity that must stay ordered; ordering is per partition, never global.
• Size the queue for the burst, and define the drain rate. An unbounded queue converts a throughput problem into a latency and memory problem.
• Apply backpressure at the producer when depth exceeds the drain budget; shedding beats silent growth.

Session State

• Default to a stateless token (signed JWT or opaque id verified at the edge); the app tier keeps nothing per user.
• Move to a shared session store (Redis) when sessions must be revocable immediately or carry more than a token can hold.
• Sticky sessions are a last resort: they survive one deploy badly and block scale-in. Never store session state in app memory.

Edge and Traffic Rules

• L4 balances connections, L7 routes on content; use L7 when routing needs paths, headers, or canaries.
• Health checks must test a dependency-aware readiness endpoint, not a static 200.
• Rate limit at the edge by identity and by cost class; return a retry hint the client can honor.

Anti-Patterns

• No component without a constraint: a box that solves no stated problem gets removed.
• No cache as a correctness fix: caching hides a slow query; fix the query, then cache.
• No queue without a consumer budget: define drain rate and DLQ before shipping.
• No shared mutable session in app memory: it blocks horizontal scaling.

References

• Building Blocks Detail - per-component decision notes, invalidation patterns, hashing mechanics